Since its launch in 1953, the prestigious Hungarian scientific journal, the Academic Journal of Internal Affairs (AJIA), has been a cornerstone of the dissemination of scientific work. Supported by the Hungarian Ministry of Interior, the journal serves as a key platform for academics and professionals specialising in a wide range of disciplines, including law, political science, criminology, law enforcement and security. Its commitment to promoting intellectual development and dialogue within these fields has made the Academic Journal of Internal Affairs (AJIA) a recognised source of knowledge and innovation, and a major contributor to both national and international academic communities.
Belügyminisztérium, 1014 Budapest, Szentháromság tér 6.
Aim: The aim of this paper is to provide a brief overview of the most fundamental characteristics of economic crime and the efforts to combat it. The occasion is a jubilee event, as in 2016, together with attorneys Bence Újhelyi and Balázs Fodor, we launched a conference series on this topic under the auspices of the Institute of Criminal Sciences at the Faculty of Law of Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary. This volume contains the lectures delivered at the 10th conference. Jubilee celebrations always provide an opportunity for reflection; in this case, I have compiled what I consider to be the most important definitions related to economic crime and the changes in economic criminal law. Methodology: I reviewed the definitions of economic crime and the development trends of economic criminal law at both international and national levels, with particular emphasis on European and Hungarian developments. Findings: Economic crimes pose an increasingly significant threat to the economy and the integrity of financial systems. The criminological concept of economic crime is complex and wide-ranging, and it cannot be equated one-to-one with the totality of economic offenses defined and punishable under The Criminal Code. Value: This paper traces the evolution of the concept from its sociological roots in 1930s North America to the current definitions of economic and financial crime used within the European Union. In terms of the purpose of economic criminal law, it highlights the EU's current focus: effectively combating organized crime, thereby also restricting the infiltration of the economy through the investment of illegal profits.
economic crime, white collar crime, economic criminal law, asset recovery
Copyright (c) 2025 Academic Journal of Internal Affairs https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Current challenges and case law experiences of asset recovery based on the research of the National Institute of Criminology
Aim: The recovery of assets acquired through criminal means has, in contemporary criminal proceedings against profit-generating offences, become a principal objective – and thus a defining element of – criminal procedure. Asset recovery has evolved into an autonomous legal institution, supported by specialized organizational structures and professional expertise. Since 2017, the National Institute of Criminology has conducted several research projects on the subject at the initiative of the prosecutor’s office. The aim of our study is to present the development and current challenges of the Hungarian asset recovery framework through our research results. Methodology: The examination of asset recovery, the constituent legal institutions thereof, and the supporting forensic tools was carried out through an analysis of legislative developments and the underlying theoretical objectives that informed such changes. In addition, the study was grounded in the review of criminal case files and the collection of empirical data via focus group discussions with practitioners. Findings: According to the findings of the research, the Hungarian legal framework for asset recovery, as well as the procedures followed by the authorities, are in compliance with the requirements of European legal instruments and international cooperation. In terms of effectiveness, assessments of the FATF Global Network found that almost 80% of countries – more than 200 – are at low or moderate level of effectiveness on asset recovery. The development of (institutional) frameworks for asset recovery remains a constant subject of focus for all international organizations concerned with organised crime and financial investigations. Moreover, numerous studies worldwide examine the factors, instruments, and standards that may enhance effectiveness in this domain. Experience demonstrates that both further efforts and ongoing analyses are necessary. Value: The research conducted at the National Institute of Criminology (OKRI) has, from the introduction of targeted regulation, continuously followed the evolution of this legal institution. Through these studies, the key milestones can be traced up to the present day, while they also highlight the current international challenges which may contribute to the effectiveness of asset recovery efforts in Hungary.
asset recovery, freezing, confiscation, international cooperation
Causes of delays and possible solutions to the protraction of monstrous cases of budget fraud
Aim: The aim of the study is to explore why large-scale (so-called monstrous) criminal proceedings for budgetary fraud are delayed for excessive periods of time and what factors prevent the timely and efficient closure of proceedings. Methodology: The research is based on a normative analysis of current legislation and related judicial, prosecutorial and investigative practice, complemented by a critical evaluation of the relevant literature. The study highlights, by means of examples, the structural and practical problems encountered in the fight against budgetary fraud. The study also builds on the experience gained by the first author as a member of the Ministry of Justice’s working group investigating delays in criminal proceedings. Findings: The study concludes that the prolongation of budgetary fraud prosecutions is mainly caused by an over-expansion of the unity of offences, leading to a forced merging of offences and an increasing volume of cases. This results in structural overload, particularly at the investigation stage, as the complexity of the facts, the large number of sub-actions and the growing volume of evidence require an excessive amount of time and capacity. In the judicial phase, while the trial concentration function of the preliminary hearing could in principle help to streamline proceedings, in practice the lack of a material and procedural framework to encourage cooperation on the case load is a major obstacle. At the same time, the excessive use of expert evidence and the technical shortcomings of digital case management slow down proceedings. The timeliness of proceedings is also often jeopardized by changes in personnel (e.g. changes of judge or defense counsel) which necessitate a repetition of the procedure. The study concludes that timely and efficient administration of justice can only be ensured through complex and coordinated reform measures, covering legislation, administration of justice, infrastructure and human resources management. Value: The value of the study lies in its systemic approach to the problems of prosecuting budget fraud and in the concrete reform directions it suggests for legislation and enforcement. The proposals can contribute to increasing efficiency, reducing procedural overload and achieving timely and fair criminal justice.
budget fraud, unity of offence, delay in criminal proceedings, efficiency of criminal proceedings
Invisible money, visible crime? The emergence of cryptocurrencies in economic crime
Aim: The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between economic crime and cryptocurrencies, particularly with regard to the role that crypto assets can play in the commission of economic crimes and in removing illicitly obtained assets from the authorities' purview. The main hypothesis is that cryptocurrencies can be interpreted not only as a financial innovation, but also as a means of opening up new dimensions in the field of crime. Methodology: The analysis is based on qualitative research methods, drawing on the law enforcement experience of the prosecution office and the findings of a targeted investigation conducted by the Prosecutor General's Office into cryptocurrencies. Findings: The primary finding of the study is that the decentralized, pseudo-anonymous nature of cryptocurrencies can pose significant risks: it can facilitate the spread of economic crime and also affect the structure of economic crimes. The anonymity and easy access characteristic of cryptocurrencies hinder the effective action of law enforcement authorities in detecting and prosecuting perpetrators. Crypto assets are also suitable for withdrawing criminal proceeds from the authorities. Value: The study highlights that, thanks to technological advances and the spread of digitalization, economic criminals now have a wider range of tools at their disposal. White-collar criminals have no particular problem adapting to the changed global circumstances; in fact, they use them to their advantage when committing crimes. The prosecution's experience in applying the law and its investigation into cryptocurrencies can contribute to the development of law enforcement practices.
economic crime, cryptocurrencies, digitalization, prosecution
Criminal proceedings against legal entities – Amendment to Act CIV of 2001, 2025
Aim: The aim of the study is to present the changes introduced by Act XLIX of 2025 amending Act CIV of 2001 on criminal measures against legal persons. The article reviews the experience of the past 20 years’ jurisprudence, the requrements of the European Union legislation and the recommendations of the 4th round of evaluation of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). These all served as bases for the a comprehensive transformation of the procedure against legal persons. The study also discusses the cornerstones of the new regulation those primary aim to harmoniously integrate the procedure against legal persons into the procedure affecting natural persons. Methodology: After a brief overview of the academic discourse on the adoption of Act CIV of 2001, the article presents the experiences of legislative preparation, the related jurispridence, as well as the relevant EU legal acts and the OECD recommendation. This is followed by an interpretation of the amending provisions of Act XLIX of 2025 and a comparison with the current regulations and the provisions of Act CX of 2017 on the Criminal Procedure Code (CPC). Findings: A comprehensive review of the regulation against legal entities was necessary based both on law enforcement experience and on fulfilling international obligations. The regulation seeks to integrate the procedure against legal entities into the course of the ordinary criminal procedure, as well as into the regulatory logic of the CPC, thereby ensuring the effective operation of this modern crime prevention mechanism. Value: The reader can learn about the reasons for the 2025 comprehensive revision of Act CIV of 2001, the issues that arose during the preparation of the codification, as well as about the purpose and content of the amendment.
corporate liability, criminal liability of a legal person, criminal proceedings against a legal person, cooperation with a legal person
The Criminal Law Protection of the Economy
Aim: The article aims to set out the foundations, limits, methods and instruments of the legal protection of the economy. Within this framework it offers a concise overview of the history of the regulation and protection of economic order, as well as the bases of criminal-law protection and the spectrum of legally protected interests. The study further situates criminal-law tools within the broader toolkit of economic protection and examines the social and moral background of, and the actors involved in, economic crime. Finally, it addresses the sanctioning of economic offences. Methodology: Following a brief historical survey, the article explores the foundations of criminal-law protection. It analyses the ultima ratio principle on the basis of decisions of the Constitutional Court and relevant international sources. It then examines societal perceptions of economic crime and its personal scope. Lastly, it provides a theoretical and practical analysis of the sanctioning of economic offences. Findings: Economic crime is a phenomenon as old as organised societies; in contemporary settings it is driven to a significant extent by profit-oriented, consumerist attitudes. The most important instruments for curbing economic crime are prevention and the inevitability of accountability. Equally crucial are legal consequences, which must exert a sufficient—yet not excessive—deterrent effect both on the individual and on society at large. Value: The paper provides readers with an overview of the rationale, limits, methods and instruments of the criminal-law protection of the economy, and offers insight into the personal background of economic crime and its social and moral background. It also sheds light on the theoretical and practical challenges of effective action against economic crime.
criminal-law protection of the economy, economic crime, economic criminal law, limits of economic criminal law
The expert or professional components of determining financial disadvantage, then and now
Aim: The study focuses on the examination of whether the amount of financial loss that falls within the scope of proof can be established exclusively by using an expert or in other ways in connection with criminal proceedings for criminal offenses against public finances. Where should the line be drawn in assessing the content of special expertise? According to criminal procedure experience, when does the determination of financial loss fall within, or when does it go beyond the “limits” of the knowledge of the investigating authority conducting the criminal procedure? Methodology: After a summary of the normative regulation on the use of experts, the followings are presented and contextualized, primarily based on practical experience in criminal proceedings: What specialization has taken place in the last two to three decades at the competent authority for the investigation of criminal offenses against public finances? How did knowledge, skills and practice change in application of law? What kind of data assets are now available through related regulations in this context, and what analytical tools and methods support their processing. Findings: The efficient conduct of criminal proceedings is fundamentally determined by the timeliness of the proof, and in this process timeliness and quality at the determination of the amount of financial loss – as a fact relevant to the proof – is also decisive. Accordingly, it is significant what practice in application of law has developed and is developing in this issue. Value: The term describing the special expertise requires the use of an expert is not defined in legislation. Basically, legal practice can shape the level of knowledge required to determine and judge the given question. The study attempted to present a picture of the question of judgment the level of knowledge, primarily from the aspect of changes in the practise of application of law at the criminal investigative authority.
special expertise, financial loss, criminal offenses against public finances, timeliness
Contemporary Budget Fraud – Functional Organization or Legally Constructed Criminal Enterprise?
Aim: This study aims to review the legal framework regulating organized budgetary fraud, critique the evolving judicial practice shaped by frequent legislative changes, and outline several recommendations based on these observations. Methodology: Following a brief historical overview, the analysis examines key conceptual elements of criminal organizations — specifically "hierarchical structure" and "conspiratorial operation" — and evaluates their interpretation in judicial practice. The author compares findings from twenty randomly selected court decisions concerning budgetary fraud prosecuted under organized crime legislation with the aims and requirements of the legislation, and draws conclusions accordingly. Findings: The current legal framework has evolved through a long and winding path; however, it still fails to clearly differentiate between budgetary fraud committed as part of a criminal organization and that committed through criminal conspiracy, despite both causing multi-billion-forint damages to the national budget annually. Judicial practice tends to classify many such cases as involving organized crime, even when, from both theoretical and practical perspectives, attributing a less severe form of organized involvement would be more appropriate. The recommendations at the end of the study suggest that enhancing defendants’ willingness to cooperate could lead to more effective recovery of illicit assets and better support for reparative claims. Value: The proposals raised in this study may contribute to greater consistency in judicial decision-making, reinforcing the principles of legal certainty, proportionality, and subsidiarity in criminal law. Proper balancing of repressive sanctions and restorative measures could also enhance the protection of the national budget.
criminal organization, criminal conspiracy, budget fraud, Curia (Supreme Court of Hungary)
Láthatatlan pénz, látható bűnözés? A kriptovaluták megjelenése a gazdasági bűnözésben
Strategic HRM and generational challenges in European public administration
Aim: The study aims to analyse the implementation of strategic human resource management (SHRM) in European public administrations, focusing on generational challenges, workforce planning, and HRM strategies to enhance public sector attractiveness. Methodology: The research is based on a large-scale international and Hungarian study, utilizing surveys, interviews, and statistical analyses conducted among EUPAN member states and observer countries to assess HRM frameworks and generational workforce integration. Findings: The results indicate varying levels of SHRM adoption, with some countries implementing comprehensive HRM strategies while others face structural and policy challenges. Additionally, the study highlights the role of HR data-driven decision-making and the impact of generational shifts on public administration workforce planning. Value: This research provides practical recommendations for improving generational management and modernizing recruitment and retention strategies in public administration. By identifying best practices and gaps, it offers insights for policymakers and HR professionals seeking to adapt HRM frameworks to demographic changes and labour market demands.
Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM), Generational Workforce Management, Public Sector HR Strategies, Data-Driven Decision-Making in HRM
Excellent Workplace: Illusion or Vision? Employer Branding in Public Services
Aim: This paper presents the findings of the 2024 employer branding survey conducted among the European Public Administration Network’s (EUPAN) member states, emphasising the growing significance of employer branding as a strategic human resource management tool. It plays a prominent role in an employer's ability to stand out in the labour market. This study shows that effective employer branding practices are already being implemented within the public services of several EUPAN member states, challenging the perception that it is exclusive to the private sector. Methodology: In addition to document and content analysis, we collected and analysed empirical data within the framework of the research. We used a quantitative measurement tool in the form of a questionnaire for both the international (N = 26) and domestic (N = 12,500) surveys. For the Hungarian component, qualitative research in the form of semi-structured interviews (N = 8) was also used. Findings: Public administration institutions possess core values that can enhance their attractiveness as employers, inspire younger generations to pursue careers in public service, and help retain current employees. These values form the basis of a robust employer brand in public administration. The relevance of employer branding is further amplified by ongoing legal, economic, societal and digital transformations. Value: This study offers insights into what constitutes an attractive or excellent employer, examines employee expectations of the workplace and explores generational differences. It also identifies the benefits of public sector employment and pinpoints HR functions that hinder recruitment and retention efforts in this field.
employer brand, public administration, recruitment, retention
The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (Abridged), or International and National Trends in Workplace Learning in Public Administration
Aim: In this paper we analyse the L&D related results of the 2024 international EUPAN research. We explore Gen Z’s main characteristics and needs; furthermore present the means by which the different countries provide for the development of their central government officials. We also examine to which extent generational awareness is present. We place the results of the parallel Hungarian generational research into international context. Methodology: We apply an international questionnaire survey (N= 26), a questionnaire survey of Hungarian government officials (N= 12.500), document and content analysis, statistical data analysis as well as interviews (N= 8). Findings: When designing L&D systems the perception of generational differences is as important as the differences themselves. In addition to generational affiliation attention must be paid to various other factors. Generational characteristics can be translated into needs which in turn can be translated into strategy guidelines. The discourse is useful as it draws attention to trends that are relevant not only for gen Z but the entire workforce (e.g. exponentially increasing digitalisation, mental well-being challenges). We display a range of good practices. Value: The paper offers insight for modernising L&D strategy in public administration. Based on extensive international and national questionnaire research, we identify trends and good practices related to, among others, mentoring, training, coaching, self-directed learning, personalised development, microlearning as well as digital platforms.
EUPAN, learning and development, Gen Z, public administration
Aim: In this paper we analyse the L&D related results of the 2024 international EUPAN research. We explore Gen Z’s main characteristics and needs; furthermore present the means by which the different countries provide for the development of their central government officials. We also examine to which extent generational awareness is present. We place the results of the parallel Hungarian generational research into international context. Methodology: We apply an international questionnaire survey (N = 26), a questionnaire survey of Hungarian government officials (N = 12 500), document and content analysis, statistical data analysis as well as interviews (N = 8). Findings: When designing L&D systems the perception of generational differences is as important as the differences themselves. In addition to generational affiliation attention must be paid to various other factors. Generational characteristics can be translated into needs which in turn can be translated into strategy guidelines. The discourse is useful as it draws attention to trends that are relevant not only for gen Z but the entire workforce (e.g. exponentially increasing digitalisation, mental well-being challenges). We display a range of good practices. Value: The paper offers insight for modernising L&D strategy in public administration. Based on extensive international and national questionnaire research, we identify trends and good practices related to, among others, mentoring, training, coaching, self-directed learning, personalised development, microlearning as well as digital platforms.
Aim: To present the main international trends in civil service staffing, age composition, and mobility, based on recent OECD and EUPAN data, and to highlight the related human resource management challenges and possible strategic responses. Methodology: A comparative analysis drawing on official OECD and EUPAN statistics, reports, and relevant literature. The study examines differences between countries in terms of the proportion of public service employment, workforce age distribution, mobility practices, and structural characteristics. Findings: Public service employment shares remain generally stable across most developed countries, although there are significant variations between OECD members. The aging of the public service workforce is faster than that of the general population, especially in Mediterranean countries, while the proportion of young employees is low, raising concerns about future replacement. Mobility is underutilized as an efficiency-enhancing tool, despite its potential to address skill shortages, distribute competencies more effectively, and support innovation. Value: The study provides a comprehensive, comparative overview of current international trends in the civil service and formulates practical recommendations for human resource policy, particularly in the strategic use of mobility. The results may assist policymakers in long-term workforce planning and fostering generational renewal in public administration.
CEPOL Portfolio as Major Training Offer for Law Enforcement
Aim: This study aims to explore how the European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Training (CEPOL) positions itself as a transnational provider of law enforcement training across Europe and beyond. It identifies key trends from the literature and examines CEPOL’s role as a trusted training provider, focusing on its training model. Methodology: The paper adopts a literature-based analytical approach, supported by a review of CEPOL’s strategic and digital training developments, highlighting how education expertise is integrated into training programmes. Findings: The study reveals CEPOL’s strategic use of technology through its digital strategy, its implementation of a blended training model, and its focus on equipping law enforcement officials with digital-age skills. It also identifies the CEPOL Exchange Programme and online platform as flagship initiatives. CEPOL's continuous data collection and assessment strategies support ongoing improvement and alignment with strategic training priorities. Value: The paper provides insights into CEPOL’s evolving training portfolio and its alignment with European security needs. It demonstrates the agency’s commitment to innovation, quality, and evidence-based training approaches, contributing to the development of a more effective and cohesive European law enforcement community.
Law enforcement training, training models and evaluation, digital skills, evidence-based policing
The European Union’s Approach to Law Enforcement Training Needs Analysis: A Review of the CEPOL Model in the Context of Global Practices
Aim: The article aims to analyse the methodologies and practical applications of Training Needs Analysis (TNA) in law enforcement, with particular attention to the model developed by the European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Training (CEPOL). It seeks to determine how CEPOL’s approach compares to other documented practices in terms of structure, foresight integration, and strategic coherence. Methodology: The study is based on a systematic review of 406 academic and institutional publications published between 1966 and 2025. The analysis includes both quantitative and qualitative methods to assess general TNA approaches, security-sector-specific applications, and the role of foresight in anticipating training needs. Special attention is given to CEPOL’s dual-layered model, comprising the EU Strategic Training Needs Assessment (EU-STNA) and the Operational Training Needs Analysis (OTNA). Findings: The review identifies a shift towards competency-based and data-driven TNA practices worldwide, with a growing emphasis on digital skills and artificial intelligence. The CEPOL model is characterised as a mature, multi-stakeholder framework that effectively translates strategic EU security priorities into operational training. Despite its strengths, the analysis also highlights challenges in outreach and in measuring long-term training impact. Value: This study provides an up-to-date and comprehensive overview of international TNA practices, positioning CEPOL’s methodology as a benchmark for structured and forward-looking law enforcement training. It contributes to the literature by mapping emerging trends and offering policy-relevant insights into professional development strategies within EU law enforcement.
training needs analysis, law enforcement training, digital skills, CEPOL model
Cepol Portfolio as Major Training Offer for Law Enforcement
Artificial Intelligence Innovations in Law Enforcement Training: CEPOL Strategy 23-27
Aim: The paper examines the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in law enforcement training and highlights the benefits and challenges associated with its use. AI in training can provide law enforcement officials with real-time, customised feedback on their performance, which can help them improve their skills and knowledge. However, the use of AI in law enforcement training also raises several challenges, such as ethical concerns related to the use of personal data and potential biases in AI algorithms. Therefore, it is crucial to effectively prepare law enforcement personnel to utilise AI to its full potential while minimising potential harm. Methodology: The paper also explores the new digital strategy of the European Union Agency for Law Enforcement Training (CEPOL) and how it incorporates AI technology into its training programmes to equip law enforcement authorities with the most up-to-date knowledge and skills. Additionally, the paper underscores the importance of research and science in identifying and developing new AI advancements and best practices. Findings: Finally, this article presents the identified gaps in digital skills and the use of new technologies in law enforcement training. Value: CEPOL periodically collects data to define strategic training priorities for law enforcement officials, emphasising digital skills and the use of new technologies. The need to increase the knowledge of law enforcement representatives on the rules of responsibility for artificial intelligence in the field of internal security remains a constant priority accompanying the development of technologies used in the work of law enforcement authorities.
artificial intelligence, law enforcement, training innovations, digital skills, new technologies, training activities, skills gap, CEPOL strategy 23-27
Innovative Paradigms in Policing: Bridging Research and Practice in Law Enforcement Training
Aim: This article examines the central role of scientific research and innovation in improving law enforcement training, emphasizing empirical evidence as the foundation for effective crime prevention and democratic accountability. Methodology: It synthesizes the framework for integrating science in law enforcement culture, highlighting the superiority of proactive, place-based, and focused interventions over traditional reactive approaches. It argues for a systemic integration of research into law enforcement education, institutional reform, and leadership development to enhance operational outcomes, foster continuous learning, and promote international interoperability. Findings: Along the article, samples on how Research at CEPOL is doing its way to reinforce its intervention to improve the offer, include innovation and reinforce the quality of the main core business of this European Union Agency: law enforcement training. It highlights the practical application of numerous findings from the literature review by briefly presenting the research activities within its portfolio, thereby demonstrating how theoretical insights are actively integrated into real-world research efforts. Value: The discussion underscores the global relevance of evidence-driven training reform, particularly within European law enforcement contexts, and advocates for a strategic realignment of training paradigms to meet contemporary security and legitimacy challenges, which results on training of excellency already offered by CEPOL.
Research and Innovation; Law Enforcement (LE) training; Scientific meetings to Exchange of knowledge; Scientific Publications; Research networks
Law Enforcement Training in the European Union
Aim: This study examines the opportunities available to individual countries to act jointly and effectively against cross-border crime, with particular emphasis on the potential embedded in education. Methodology: In addition to the legislation, recommendations, and best practices related to CEPOL’s functioning, the study presents European Union law enforcement training based on the author’s personal experience. Findings: Beyond tracing the development and operation of CEPOL, the study provides insights into why a unified European law enforcement training system is important and necessary. Value: The paper is practice-oriented and seeks to offer a comprehensive overview of CEPOL’s role and history.
Monthly overview of EU legislation and relevant events (December)
The author summarises the events of December 2010 in the field of EU cooperation on home affairs.
A call for special law enforcement awareness: The case of disaster-relief fraud
The article focuses on the complexity of challenges law enforcement agencies face during and in the aftermath of natural disasters. Using American examples, mostly incidents after the destruction of hurricane Katrina, investigating insurance- and charity fraud, fighting corruption and other white collar crimes in disaster relief and recovery are in centre of the author’s scrutiny.